How Far Has the Importance of Nelson Mandela in the Ending of Apartheid Been Exaggerated Essay Example

How Far Has the Importance of Nelson Mandela in the Ending of Apartheid Been Exaggerated? Essay How far has the importance of Nelson Mandela in the ending of apartheid been exaggerated? It can be argued that the importance of Nelson Mandela in the ending of apartheid has been greatly exaggerated. Apartheid ended due to a combination of long term and short term events. The ANC represented the main opposition of apartheid while protests and rebellions caught the attention of the world, international sanctions put pressure on the south African government and something had to be done before their economy completely fell apart. De Klerk shocked the country when he took the first step towards abolishing apartheid although, the spark of light and face of rebellion, Mandela, provided the inspiration to make the end of apartheid possible. Nelson Mandela’s contribution and dedication to South Africa’s struggle in achieving freedom and equal rights for every South African led to his popularity and respect in South Africa. In the 1950’s, Mandela began working on ending the apartheid. In 1964, he was arrested and imprisoned for trying to overthrow the government, but continued his fight even from his prison cell. Nelson Mandela presented the people of South Africa with a leader in their struggle, providing the inspiration needed for a drastic change. He became a symbol of hope and inspiration. He planted the idea in the people that there was something they could do about their situation. Nelson Mandela’s role in bringing Apartheid to an end was very important, however, there were many other factors that contributed to the ending of Apartheid. Firstly, the African National Congress, also known as the ANC, was a major factor in ending Apartheid. t was founded in response to the injustice against black south africans at the hand of the government then in power. By 1919 the anc was leading a campaign against passes that black people were forced to carry, but then the anc became dormant in the mid-1920s . at this time black people were also represented by the ICU and the previously white-only communist party, but neither played a major part in the ending of apartheid. in 1930s J. T Gumede ( president of the ANC) was voted out of power and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive. We will write a custom essay sample on How Far Has the Importance of Nelson Mandela in the Ending of Apartheid Been Exaggerated? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How Far Has the Importance of Nelson Mandela in the Ending of Apartheid Been Exaggerated? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How Far Has the Importance of Nelson Mandela in the Ending of Apartheid Been Exaggerated? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Although after being remodeled as a mass movement in the 1940s the ANC responded militarily to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts, and defiance. The ANC represented the main opposition to the government during apartheid and therefore they played a major role in resolving the conflict through participating in the peacemaking and peace-building processes. Infact by the late 1980s the ANC became the most popular political movement although it can be argued that it was a result on Mandela’s influence. Protests were extremely important in ending Apartheid and believed to be more influential than Mandela. Protests against pass laws were quite common but the Sharpville massacre is what caught the attention of the world. The Sharpville massacre was one of the worst civilian massacres is south African history. It was reported in the Chronicle of the 20th century that â€Å"56 Africans died and 162 were injured when police opened fire in the black township of Sharpville. † This cannot be thought of as completely accurate as it was published in a newspaper. The government was in control of the newspapers and may have been altered to give the impression it was not as bad as it seems. What’s more, a white reporter, Joanmarie Fubbs said â€Å"I saw a policeman taking his rifle-butt to several women who were trying to retrieve bodies. They weren’t shot down but they were rifle butted and kicked and booted† This could be thought of as more accurate as it was not published in government controlled newspapers, more so that it came from a white reporter. It could be argued that a black person could have tried to distort the event even further. There were many peaceful protests but the sharpville massacre sticks out because of the extreme violence. Violence played a major part in the end of apartheid. More-so than the protests because of the attention it brought to the situation of black South Africans. There was considerable labour unrest and strikes were common. There were also occasional bomb attacks. On the 21st march, in Langa, Cape town. a mass march to langa police station was organised. The plan was to surrender themselves guilty of not carrying their passes, and as there were so many of them the police could not arrest them all. At this time an identical plan was created in sharpville and turned into what would be known as the sharpville massacre. Due to the event in sharpville the march was called off and a ban was placed on gatherings. However later that day protestors gathered again. The police ordered the protesters to disperse and baton charged them and the protestors retaliated with stones. Langa was very tense that night as angry protestors barricaded the streets and looted policemen’s homes. The death toll by the end of the day in Langa was three, shot and killed by white policemen. The sharpville massacre and the langa shootings had a great impact on apartheid, the damage done was costly and the government had become ungovernable. Violence caused the protests to be a major factor in the end of apartheid because it was so costly. The South African government was already in bad shape and could not deal with the ungovernable public. Also the violence caught the attention of international relations, and frankly, they were appalled. Another factor believed to be more influential than Mandela would be the international pressure. This was a major cause mainly because of the sanctions. The embodied rejection of White domination in South Africa, in the form of protests, strikes and demonstrations caused a decade of uncontrolable mass action in resistance to the imposition of even harsher forms of segregation and oppression. People all over the world were shocked to see the violence in events like the Sharpeville and Langa shootings. They also saw the events occurring between the South African government and extremist groups like the ANC. Internal opposition to Apartheid had grown strongly and many areas of South African cities, inhabited by black South Africans, had become ungovernable. In 1962 the UN General Assembly requested that its member sever their political, fiscal and transportion ties with south africa. In 1968, it proposed ending all cultural, educational and sporting connections also. After much debate, by the late 1980s the United States, the United Kingdom, and 23 other nations had passed laws that placed various trade sanctions on South Africa and a significant amount of foreign investment had withdrawn from South Africa. After the adoption of sanctions, South Africa experienced severe economic difficulty. The government was falling apart and without support from other countries it wouldn’t recover. It was forced to abolish apartheid. Although without the violence other countries wouldn’t have been so appalled that they felt they had to step in. De Klerk played a crucial part in the anti-apartheid movement as he was president and had the power to end apartheid whilst Mandela didn’t. Overall, making the end of Apartheid a joint combination of both FW de Klerk’s efforts in the negotiations between the National party, although more so, Mandela’s and the ANC’s progress and constant dedication which helped to bring about the end of minority rule. At the time, this move by the government was quite unexpected, but in retrospect, an inevitability. The prime minister of South Africa in 1989 was PW. Botha, however after having a stroke, and being forced into bitter resignation, was replaced by FW de Klerk. De Klerk was commonly thought to be conservative and agree with segregation but his first speech on 2nd February 1990 announced plans to legalise the ANC, PAC and SACP and also that political prisoners, including Mandela, would be released. He said he wanted to work with political groups to form a new constitution for South Africa. Although De Klerk’s decision was a great step forward for blacks, there were many possible reasons for his drastic change in government. A journalist in Cape Town at the time wondered if De Klerk fully realised what he was doing. It is possible that De Klerk believed that there could be some clever power sharing system that allowed nationalists to keep hold of some of their power. Furthermore the advice he was receiving from economists was grim, is he did not do something the situation would get much worse and as a deeply religious man it can be argued that De Klerk believed God had chosen him to lead his party in a new direction. In conclusion it can be argued that Mandela’s contribution to the ending of apartheid is greatly exaggerated. The ANC was an organisation black people could support, it gave them hope for the future and reminded them they could have a life without oppression and segregation. Not only did the ANC organise protests, it acted as the fuel for others to continue to protest and object. The protests were made largely effective by the governments resort to violence, which caught the attention of the world. International pressure played a critical role due to the economic sanctions they imposed on South Africa. The continuing violence in South Africa caused disinvestment as the atmosphere was no longer conductive for business thus withdrawal of foreign investors. President de Klerk was instrumental in starting negotiations for change to majority rule, starting with a shared leadership between Mr Mandela and President de Klerk. The collapse of the Communist Socialist Soviet Republic also contributed. The American government withdrew military aid to the South African government as the African resistance was no longer perceived as Communist inspired. Although the influence of the Father Figure, Nelson Mandela can never go unmentioned. His very existence inspired all those who were fighting for the end of Apartheid white and blacks side by side. Mandela was, though, probably more important than the ANC and other organisations. On the whole Mandela’s work largely contributed to the end of Apartheid yet he was not the most important factor. Overall, all of these factors fostered South African ideas against apartheid and subsequently started them to look for their own freedom. If these events did not happen in the same time frame, the same result may not have occurred. But, the coincidence of each of these individual factors led to the cumulative effect of an end to apartheid.

Coffee vs Tea Which is better for you [Infographic]

Coffee vs Tea Which is better for you [Infographic] Coffee and tea are perhaps two of the most popular beverages in the world. But how does one go about choosing which beverage they should drink in the morning? Here’s an infographic detailing the benefits and side effects of  coffee and tea. RELATED:  Are You Drinking Coffee the Right Way?Loading†¦(function(d){var js, id="pikto-embed-js", ref=d.getElementsByTagName("script")[0];if (d.getElementById(id)) { return;}js=d.createElement("script"); js.id=id; js.async=true;js.src="https://magic.piktochart.com/assets/embedding/embed.js";ref.parentNode.insertBefore(js, ref);}(document));Download this infographic.Embed Our Infographic On Your Site!Image Width%pxEmbedded from TheJobNetworkEmbedded from TheJobNetwork

Native American Women Of Hollywood Movies Essay

Native American Women Of Hollywood Movies - Essay Example They were portrayed as scantily clad uncivilized women unable to adjust to the world of the white. This concept totally disregards the true culture of the Native American women. It is likely that the women were portrayed in this manner to make the film interesting and commercially successful. People who are not aware of the true culture may be influenced by these portrayals and this misrepresentation of the nature of the Native women may remain in the consciousness of the viewer. The Native American Women have always been portrayed as primitives or have been romanticized or some myth is woven around them. Either they are cast in the stereotyped image of a subservient, meek, wild and lustful squaw or that of a Princess who is a protector, guide, rescuer and lover of the white man. She is ready to change her religion, defy her people and if need be even die for the white man who she loves. But is there any truth in these assumptions? If you read the autobiography of some Native American women you will know that is far from the truth. Lucille Winnie in her autobiography (Sah-Gan-De-Oh: The Chief's Daughter) says, "It is my hope that those of you who read this will better understand us. We are not refugees from another world, feathered and warlike as the TV and movies depict us, but a proud race who love our heritage and are striving to keep alive our own culture" (quoted in Bataille and Sands, 1984: 23). Autobiographies like this prove that Native American women are not like how they are presented in movies.

Hardware Replacement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hardware Replacement - Essay Example This essay outlines if it is necessary for a firm to upgrade hardware. To do it in order to accommodate a new software system is a rather radical change that must be thought thoroughly beforehand. It is good to evaluate the risks first and the benefits and disadvantages of all the alternatives in order to weigh the options appropriately. Employ or designate people who are knowledgeable in the ins and outs of the new system and put into place a clear and specific timeline for the completion of the project. Finally, there should be sufficient resources and information for the employees affected by such change since, overall, the success of the business venture is dependent on how the end-users will respond to the change. The five variables of project management such as scope, time, cost, quality and risk will need to be evaluated thoroughly. If the CRM is to be implemented in the corporate offices, it has to be defined on how the new software is targeted to be used and up to what exten t. The target users of the new system will have to be distinct. The boundaries need to be defined in order to make sure that the project will not go beyond its target use or users. No unnecessary training or resources will be wasted to those that will not be affected by the change. Time-frame has to be defined as well. By changing the current equipment or hardware being used, factors such as how long it will take for the current equipment to be replaced with new equipment and before it will be fully functional must be taken into consideration

Point of Presence Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Point of Presence Advertising - Essay Example The author planned to purchase a movie named Lord of the Rings – Fellowship of the Ring on recommendation of a friend and came across a pack of all the three movies of Lord of the Ring series at a price that was 20% less than the overall cost had the movies been purchased separately. The author realized that he anyway had to purchase the other two movies to complete the story and was delighted to get all the three of them at 20% discount. In the second purchase instance, the author was delighted to realize the value of the package as he owns both a Sony digital camera and Handy Cam. The total price was cheaper by 15%. Such product promotion advertisements resulted in positive impact on the author because the overall value of the buying decisions improved although the author didn’t had planned for part of the purchase. The effectiveness of these two â€Å"Point-of-Sale† advertisements resulted in win-win deal for both the store and the author – the store in creased the net sale value and the author got more useful products at lesser cost. The author was not at all annoyed but was happy with the sales girl for introducing these offers. Massy and Frank (1966. pp383) presented the findings of an exploratory study on behavior of retailer advertising thus establishing some interesting empirical generalizations. They could prove that the brands sell differently in different stores and the support to a brand depends upon the brand’s market share in a particular store type. The author discovered a linkage of this theory with the research by Kumar and Leone (1988. pp178-179) which stated that many customer packaged good manufacturers have resorted to funding short term sales promotion at the store level which primarily has two distinct advantages – the effectiveness of promotions can result in on the spot sales activity and the store management takes pride into participating in on the spot campaigns given increased margins & commissions.Both the manufacturer and the store management gain in this process – the former achieves brand promotion & quick sales and the latter achieves improved profitability of the store.  

Predisposing Factors For Urinary Tract Infections

Predisposing Factors For Urinary Tract Infections The important predisposing factors for urinary infections in females are age, sex, pregnancy, sexual intercourse, menopause, use of birth control devices, catheterization, surgery, diabetes, use of calcium supplements, immunosupperession, renal transplantation and spinal cord injury. Besides, UTI is also the most frequent medical complication in patients with neurologic bladder dysfunction leading to high morbidity, poor quality of life and limited life expectancy. Moreover, severe protein malnutrition, poor fluid intake, and poor hygiene resulting in decrease immunity are also associated with urinary tract infections. A number of predisposing factors render individuals susceptible to urinary tract infections (UTIs). Any obstruction in normal urine flow or complete emptying of bladder facilitates the access of organisms to the bladder and, in turn, predisposes an individual to infection (Jackson et al., 2000). There are numerous possible structural abnormalities of urinary tract that are associated with a residual urine which increases the chances of infection and may become associated with repeated attacks of UTI. Some of these are renal calculi, tumors, and urethral stricture. All these factors cause obstruction to complete emptying of bladder (Shanson and Speller, 1999). Approximately 15% of the urinary stones diseases are infectious stones. These stones are composed of struvite and/or carbonate apatite. UTI caused by urease positive organisms is also a risk factor for the formation of infectious stones. If these infections are not treated and the stones are not removed, the kidney is damaged (B ichler et al., 2002). Some important predisposing factors for urinary tract infections are: 1. SEX An important predisposing factor for UTI is the sex of patient. It is evident from substantial research that UTIs are more common in females as compared to males (Mohsin and Siddiqui, 2010; Dielubanza and Schaeffer, 2011). Most infections in women are uncomplicated, whereas in men complicated infections predominate (Carlson and Mulley, 1985). Women are especially prone to UTIs probably because of the shortness of urethra and closeness of urethra to opening of genital and intestinal tract (Nester et al., 2004). The shorter length of the female urethra allows uropathogens easier access to the bladder. Men are less prone to get UTI, possibly because of their longer urethra and the presence of antimicrobial substances in the prostatic fluid (Schaechter et al., 1993). The relation of sex and incidence of UTI has been confirmed by the study of Laupland et al., (2007). Laupland et al., (2007) reported community onset of UTI among Canadian residents with the annual incidence of 1.75% and fem ales were at significantly increased risk as compared to males (3% vs. 0.5%, RR 5.98; 95% CI, 5.81-6.15; P 2. AGE The incidence of UTIs in women tends to increase with increasing age. Symptomatic and asymptomatic UTIs are extremely common in the elderly population. The prevalence of bacteriuria in women is about 20% between ages 65 and 75, increasing to between 20-25% over the age of 80 years (Gray and Malone-Lee, 1995). Whereas, a significant number of infections occur in men only after the age of 50 years when prostatic hypertrophy or other urinary tract abnormalities occur. UTI in young men is unusual and requires further investigations (Shanson and Speller, 1999). The prevalence in men is 3% at age 65-70 years and about 20% at ages over 80 years (Gray and Malone-Lee, 1995). The geriatric (elderly) community is frequently affected by UTIs but these infections are usually asymptomatic. Approximately 25% of all infections in elderly are UTIs (Foxman, 2002). In a study (Buonanno and Damweber, 2006), it was documented that 50% of elderly women are affected by asymptomatic UTI. In many cases bladd er catheterization is a contributing factor and causes increasing incidence of UTIs in elderly population. In another study (Rodhe et al., 2006), it was reported that asymptomatic UTI was found in 14.8% of the overall individuals of  ³ 80 years of age. Of these, 19% were women and 5.8% were men. A woman over 80 years with urinary incontinence and needing support to walk has 50% risk of asymptomatic UTI. The majority of symptomatic urinary tract infections occur in women after the age of 50 years (Shanson and Speller, 1999). In a study (Menon et al., 1995), prevalence of symptomatic and asymptomatic UTI was evaluated in women between 57-97 years of age. It was found that symptomatic UTI occurred in 54% women and asymptomatic UTI occurred in 10% women. From these results it was concluded that asymptomatic UTI was common in elderly women while only a small percentage of women have symptomatic UTI. In another study, an increased prevalence of UTI among women aged 18-30 years was found associated with sexual intercourse and pregnancy (Cunha et al., 2007). It has been reported that complicated UTIs were found most frequent among females aged between 40-59 years, while, in other age groups, uncomplicated UTIs were most frequent. It has also been noted that the isolation frequency of E. coli gradually decreases with increasing age with both complicated and uncomplicated UTIs (Kumamoto et al., 2001). UTIs are generally asymptomatic among apparently healthy, sexually active young women. In contrast, UTIs are more complicated among elderly individuals, infants and young children. UTI in children younger than 2 years has been associated with significant morbidity and long term medical consequences (Shortliffe, 2003). Winiecka et al., (2002) evaluated the bladder instability in children with recurrent UTIs. It was found that the most common disturbance of lower urinary tract functioning in the children with recurrent UTI was instability of the dtrusor muscles which occurred more often in children with vesicoureteral reflux. The incidence of nosocomial UTIs has been found to be higher in age group of 53.6  ± 20 years than the patients in age group of 39.7  ± 22.2 years. However, all the UTIs are usually asymptomatic and develop in catheterized individuals (Parlak et al., 2007). In contrast, Vessey et al. (1987) observed that the risk of UTI decreases with age. 3. SEXUAL ACTIVITY Another predisposing factor, sexual intercourse, is also a common cause of UTIs among women because during sexual intercourse bacteria in the vaginal area could be messaged into the urethra. This problem can be avoided by urinating after sexual intercourse (Cornforth, 2002). Women who change sexual partners or have sexual intercourse more frequently may experience more frequent bladder infections (Kontiokari et al., 2003). In a study (Scholes et al., 2000), independent risk factors for recurrent UTI in young women included recent one month intercourse frequency (odds ratio (OR), 5.8; 95% confidence interval (CI), 3.1-10.6 for 4-8 episodes), 12 month spermicide use (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.1-2.9), and new sex partner changing the past year (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.2-3.2). 4. USE OF BIRTH CONTROL DEVICES Several studies have shown that women who use a diaphragm are more likely to develop UTIs than women who use other forms of birth control (Strom et al., 1987). More recently, investigators have demonstrated that women whose life partners use a condom with spermicidal foam also tend to have growth of E.coli in the vagina (Jancel and Dudas, 2002). Women with UTI are 2.7 times more likely to be current user of intra-uterine contraceptive device (IUCD)/condoms (95% CI, 1.3-5.6) and 1.6 times more likely to be housewives by occupation (95% CI, 1.0-3.0) as compared to women who did not have UTI. UTI among IUCD/condom users may reflect existence of unhygienic conditions during application of procedure or spread of infection by the thread of IUCD. UTI in these women may have serious consequences of developing renal damage (Bhurt et al., 2000). 5. PREGNANCY Pregnancy also acts as a risk factor for UTI as it causes anatomic and hormonal changes which favour development of UTI (Schlembach, 2006; Marinade et al., 2009). A history of current UTI, diabetes mellitus, analgestic nephropathy, hyperuricaemia and Fanconis syndrome are predisposing factors for UTI during pregnancy (Krcmery et al., 2001). Dietary habits seem to be an important risk factor for UTI recurrence in fertile women, and dietary guidance could be a first step towards prevention (Kontiokari et al., 2003). The physiological changes associated with pregnancy are the relaxation of ureter under the effect of hormones and increase urinary output. The chemical composition of urine is also affected and results in increased urinary substances e.g. glucose and amino acids, which may facilitate bacterial growth (Sheikh et al., 2000). The pregnant women with kidney infection have a greater chance of delivering their babies prematurely with low weight (Mittal and Wing, 2005). Sometimes, it results in fetal and maternal morbidity (Lamyman et al., 2005). Recently, the relationship of maternal UTIs in pregnancy with the rate of preterm birth was evaluated (Banhidy et al., 2007). It was found that of 38,151 newborn infants, 5.7% had mothers with UTIs with pregnancy. Women with pregnancy also had somewhat shorter gestational age and a higher proportion of preterm birth. This preterm inducing effect of maternal UTI was preventable by antimicrobial therapy. In this connection, Hazir (2007) evaluated the frequency of asymptomatic UTI in pregnant women. Eleven hundred apparently healthy pregnant women were screened for significant bacteriuria. The prevalence of asymptomatic UTI was found to be 6.1%. However, asymptomatic UTI had no relationship with gestational age, parity, level of education, and body mass index. In a study (Al-Haddad, 2005) 500 pregnant women were screened for asymptomatic UTI in their first and second trimester. Out of them 8.4% were positive for cultur e. A control group of non-pregnant women was also screened for asymptomatic UTI. The control group yielded 3% positive cultures. The frequency of UTI in pregnant women was observed 30% of the women suffered from UTI. Of these infected women, 53.7% were in the age group of 15-24 years and 48.8% were in the third trimester. Primigravida had highest percent culture positivity i.e. 66.6%. The incidence was higher in less than 20 years of age group i.e. 71.42%. The incidence of prematurity was 75% and that of low birth weight was 50% in untreated patients (Lavanya and Jogalakshmi, 2002). In a study (Hanif, 2006), it was observed that out of 1000 pregnant women, 42.6% complained one or more symptoms of UTI. The urine culture of symptomatic patients showed growth in only 8.69% cases. In another study carried out by Nath et al. (1996), 542 women were screened for UTI. Out of them, 9.04% had UTI. Of these, 35% had asymptomatic while remaining 65% had symptomatic UTI. Age-wise incidence of UTI in pregnancy was observed in the age groups of 0.05 by  Ã‚ £2 test) (Khattak et al., 2006). Incidence of UTI during pregnancy among Pakistani women, was slightly low in pregnant women (28.5%) as compared to non-pregnant control subjects (30%). However, the difference was not significant. Symptomatic UTI was found in 22.4% pregnant and 20.0% non-pregnant subjects (Sheikh et al., 2000). In a study conducted in Peshawar, Pakistan (Ahmad et al., 2003) the prevalence of UTI was 29.57% in pregnant while 14% in non-pregnant control subjects. In another study performed in Pakistan, 130 muslim women of child bearing age attending the outpatients clinic were interviewed in order to determine the frequency of cystitis and its associated risk factors including personal hygiene practices. Of these, 27% of the women experienced cystitis once in the past. About 63% women reported first UTI during pregnancy. A significant relationship was observed between parity and cystitis (P During pregnancy symptomatic and asymptomatic UTI can trigger the development of serious complications affecting both the mother and the fetus. Thus, proper screening and treatment of bacteriuria is necessary to prevent complications during pregnancy. All women should be screened for bacteriuria in the first trimester. Women with a history of recurrent UTIs or urinary tract abnormalities should have repeated screening for bacteriuria during pregnancy (Macejko and Schaeffer, 2007). 6. MENOPAUSE Postmenopausal women are also susceptible to UTI due to lack of estrogen which plays important role in pathogenesis (Hu et al., 2004). The protective effect of estrogen replacement on ascending UTI is controversial. A study was designed using an experimental model of UTI. In that study surgically menopausal mice were supplemented with estrogen and the susceptibility of UTI was evaluated after experimental E. coli infection. Surprisingly, despite the hypothesis that estrogen would protect mice from infection, estrogen treatment significantly increased the susceptibility of the mice to ascending UTI (Curran et al., 2007). In postmenopausal women, sexual activity, history of UTI, treated diabetes and urinary incontinence are associated with a high risk of UTI. However, therapeutic role of oral estrogen remains uncertain. For instance, in a study (Hu et al., 2004) which included the postmenopausal women aged between 55 and 75 years, development of UTI was noted in sexually active postmenopausal women (OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.07-1.87), with a history of UTI (OR, 4.20; 95% CI, 3.25-5.43), diabetes mellitus (OR, 2.78; 95% CI, 1.78-4.35) and urinary incontinence (OR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.03-1.78). 7. CATHETERIZATION Another common source of infection is catheter or tube placed in the bladder (Ribby, 2006; Warde, 2010). The use of vesical catheter over 5 days is the cause of UTI. Bacteria on the outside of the catheter can climb up the device into the bladder and cause infection (Pawelczyk et al., 2002). Infection associated with an indwelling catheter is a representative type of biofilm infection occuring in the urinary tract (Evans et al., 2001). More than 90% of UTI in catheterized individuals are asymptomatic. These infections are rarely symptomatic and infrequently cause blood stream infection. (Tambyah and Maki, 2000). Catheter associated UTI accounts for 40% of all nosocomial infections and are the most common source of Gram negative bacteremia in hospitalized patients. The risk of bacteriuria is approximately 5% per day in 10-20% of hospitalized patients who receive an indwelling foley catheter. With long term catheterization, bacteriuria is inevitable (Warren et al., 1997). For example, the impact of urinary catheterization on 294 elderly (>65 years) inpatients with community acquired UTIs was studied (Kang et al., 2007). Of 294, 144 subjects had urinary catheterization. Patients with urinary catheterization were found with significantly more advanced age, female predominance, frequent admission in hospital, longer hospital stay and higher pathogen isolation after culture than subjects without urinary catheterization (P 8. DIABETES It is evident from literature that diabetic subjects are also at high risk of UTIs. For instance, in a study (Goswami et al., 2001; Litza and Brill, 2010), the prevalence of UTI in diabetic subjects were found to be higher when compared with non-diabetic subjects (9% vs. 0.78%, P= 0.05). Symptomatic and asymptomatic UTIs occur more frequently in women with diabetes mellitus than women without diabetes mellitus (Daneshgari and Mooree, 2006). Women with diabetes who requires pharmacological treatment have approximately twice as high risk of cystitis as non-diabetic women (Boyko et al., 2002) because of the changes in the immune system secondary to the high sugar concentration (Geerlings et al., 2002). However, gestational diabetes mellitus was not associated with increased risk of UTIs (Rizk et al., 2001). Although asymptomatic bacteriuria is not associated with serious health outcomes in healthy persons, further research needs to be undertaken regarding the impact of asymptomatic bact eriuria in patients with diabetes (Geerlings et al., 2002). In another study, Geerlings et al. (2000) evaluated the characteristics associated with the development of UTI among diabetic subjects. It was found that 14% women with type 1 diabetes developed a symptomatic UTI. The most important risk factor for those women was sexual intercourse during the week before entry into the study (44% without vs. 53% with sexual intercourse). A total of 23% women with type 2 diabetes developed symptomatic UTI. The most important risk factor for those women was the presence of asymptomatic UTI at baseline (25% without vs. 42% with asymptomatic UTI). The risk of symptomatic and asymptomatic UTIs among diabetic and non-diabetic postmenopausal women was studied by Boyko et al. (2005). The incidences of symptomatic UTI in diabetic and non-diabetic women were recorded as 12.2% and 6.7% respectively. Whereas, the incidence of asymptomatic UTI was 6.7% for diabetic women and 3% for non-diabetic women. It was concluded that the increased UTI risk occurred mainly in diabetic women taking insulin and women with a longer diabetic duration (> 10 years) compared with non-diabetic women. 9. BLOOD TYPES In addition to above mentioned predisposing factors, the literature has also documented that women with UTIs tend to have certain blood types (Jackson et al., 2000). The presence or absence of blood group determinants on the surface of uroepithelial cells may influence an individuals susceptibility to UTIs. (Schaeffer et al., 2001). Such as, as cited by Kinane et al. (1982), the blood groups AB or B, constitute independent risk factors in some but not all studies. Recently, Sakallioglu and Sakallioglu (2007) found the concordance of UTI with blood group A Rh positive. Infectious microorganisms interfere with specific molecules on epithelial cells. These specific molecules are antigens of the P and ABO system. Antigen structures on uroepithelial cells, for example, the glycolipids of the P antigen serves as receptors for adhesion of microorganisms. The proportion of persons with B phenotype was 23% and P1 antigen was found in 76% of patients suffering from chronic UTIs. In comparison with P1 negative individuals, P1 positive individuals has a longer disease history and more frequently suffered from symptomatic UTI as well as destructive renal changes. The Le (a) antigen and Le (b) antigen (Lewis phenotypes) were observed in 82% and 18% of the patients respectively (Ziegler et al., 2004). 10. USE OF CALCIUM SUPPLEMENTS The use of calcium supplements also increases the risk of UTI, since calcium ions significantly increase bacterial adherence to uroepithelial cells. Apicella and Sobota, (1990) demonstrated in vitro that as the concentration of calcium was increased to levels higher than normally found in the urine, there was a significant increase in bacterial adherence. It was also found that if the diet was supplemented with calcium there was an increase in the excretion of calcium in the urine and a corresponding increase in bacterial adherence when bacteria and uroepithelial cells were incubated in this urine. 11. SURGERY Any surgery on the urinary tract increases the chances of UTI. Urological complications after renal transplantation are also frequently associated with UTIs (Senger et al., 2007). UTI is also the most common bacterial infection occurring in the renal transplant recipients, particularly anatomic abnormalities of the native or transplanted kidneys and possible rejection and immunosupperession. The major risk factors for UTI in renal transplant recipients include indwelling bladder catheters, trauma to the kidney and ureter during surgery (Rubin, 1993; Wilson et al., 2005). Steroids or cytotoxic drugs, as given to renal transplant recipients, greatly increase the chances of recurrent UTIs and infections of kidney in the first few months of post-transplant (Shanson and Speller, 1999). In a study (Senger et al., 2007) it was observed that 13.3% episodes of UTI occurred in the first month to sixth month and 72% after the sixth month of transplantation. The most commonly isolated organism w as E. coli (61.3%). 12. DIET Frequent meat consumption appeared to be the predisposing factor for UTI. UTI were found significantly more common among the people consuming meat more frequently than once a week but not daily (Nayak et al., 1999). 13. AIDS CANCER Certain diseases also predispose UTIs e.g. HIV patients are susceptible to acquire UTI (Padoveze et al., 2002). Schonwald et al. (1999) performed a study to determine the relationship of UTI with AIDS. The analysis showed that patients with HIV had UTI more frequently than control (HIV negative) patients. Beside the difference in the frequency, it was also observed that Enterococci were the frequent isolates in patients with HIV disease, whereas, E. coli was most frequently isolated organism from control subjects. Cancer patients are also at high risk of UTI (Gerberding, 2002). In a study Munyis et al. (1998) determined the prevalence of UTI in children with cancer. The prevalence of UTI was 8.1% (CI = 6.1, 10.1). Out of 15, only 5 patients were symptomatic while remaining 10 were asymptomatic. E. coli and Klebsiella species were responsible for 93.4% of the infections.

How are differing attitudes to war expressed in the poetry of WWI :: English Literature

How are differing attitudes to war expressed in the poetry of WWI that you have read? You should compare England to her sons’ with Dulce et Decorum Est. How are differing attitudes to war expressed in the poetry of WWI that you have read? You should compare ‘England to her sons’ with ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’. You may refer to other poems. Remember to consider the influence of historical contents on the poet’s viewpoints. In this poem I am going to compare two poems from World War I. The to poems that I will be comparing are ‘England to her sons’ and ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’. ‘England to her sons’ was written by W.N. Hodgson in 1914, ‘Dulce et decorum est’ was written by Wilfred Owen in 1918. These two poems that I am going to study have very different ideas towards the war. In the poem ‘England to her sons’ the attitude towards the war is very pro-war, however ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ is very anti-war. ‘England to her sons’ is pro-war because it was written at the beginning of war in 1914 and was trying to get men to enlist for the army. ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ is anti-war because it was written during the war in 1918 and so the poet will have experienced the war and is trying to tell the public what war is really like. ‘England to her sons’ uses a lot of propaganda, for example, ‘Free in service’, when you are at war you are not free in service, you do what you are told and this is the same with any service, also this poem is telling us how to feel about war. In ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ no propaganda is used because the poet is trying to portray the real image of war. Each poem has very different themes in ‘England to her sons’ one of the themes is propaganda but in ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ there is a theme of the lies of propaganda, ‘The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori.’ (Meaning ‘It is sweet and meet to die for your country’) and it is saying that this is all a lie. In ‘England to her sons’ another theme is men to enlist, ‘I hear you thrilling to the trumpet call of war’, people are not thrilled at the news of war and trumpets do not call. The poet is trying to make the start of war a joyous occasion. Also in ‘England to her sons’ another theme is responsibility and duty of war, ‘Steeled to suffer uncomplaining’ but